13 The Query Optimizer

13.4.1.1 Transforming Queries

The input to the query transformer is a parsed query, which is represented by a set of query blocks. The query blocks are nested or interrelated to each other. The form of the query determines how the query blocks are interrelated to each other. The main objective of the query transformer is to determine if it is advantageous to change the form of the query so that it enables generation of a better query plan. Several different query transformation techniques are employed by the query transformer, including:

• View Merging

• Predicate Pushing

• Subquery Unnesting

• Query Rewrite with Materialized Views

• OR-expansion

Any combination of these transformations can be applied to a given query.

13.4.1.2 Peeking of User-Defined Bind Variables

The query optimizer peeks at the values of user-defined bind variables on the first invocation of a cursor. This feature lets the optimizer determine the selectivity of any WHERE clause condition, as well as if literals have been used instead of bind variables. On subsequent invocations of the cursor, no peeking takes place, and the cursor is shared, based on the standard cursor-sharing criteria, even if subsequent invocations use different bind values.

When bind variables are used in a statement, it is assumed that cursor sharing is intended and that different invocations are supposed to use the same execution plan. If different invocations of the cursor would significantly benefit from different execution plans, then bind variables may have been used inappropriately in the SQL statement. Bind peeking works for a specific set of clients, not all clients.

13.4.1.3 Estimating

The estimator generates three different types of measures:

• Selectivity

• Cardinality

• Cost

These measures are related to each other, and one is derived from another. The end goal of the estimator is to estimate the overall cost of a given plan. If statistics are available, then the estimator uses them to compute the measures. The statistics improve the degree of accuracy of the measures.

13.4.1.4 Generating Plans

The main function of the plan generator is to try out different possible plans for a given query and pick the one that has the lowest cost. Many different plans are possible because of the various combinations of different access paths, join methods, and join orders that can be used to access and process data in different ways and produce the same result.

A join order is the order in which different join items, such as tables, are accessed and joined together. For example, in a join order of table1, table2, and table3, table table1 is accessed first. Next, table2 is accessed, and its data is joined to table1 data to produce a join of table1 and table2. Finally, table3 is accessed, and its data is joined to the result of the join between table1 and table2.

The plan for a query is established by first generating subplans for each of the nested subqueries and unmerged views. Each nested subquery or unmerged view is represented by a separate query block. The query blocks are optimized separately in a bottom-up order. That is, the innermost query block is optimized first, and a subplan is generated for it. The outermost query block, which represents the entire query, is optimized last.

The plan generator explores various plans for a query block by trying out different access paths, join methods, and join orders. The number of possible plans for a query block is proportional to the number of join items in the FROM clause. This number rises exponentially with the number of join items.

The plan generator uses an internal cutoff to reduce the number of plans it tries when finding the one with the lowest cost. The cutoff is based on the cost of the current best plan. If the current best cost is large, then the plan generator tries harder (in other words, explores more alternate plans) to find a better plan with lower cost. If the current best cost is small, then the plan generator ends the search swiftly, because further cost improvement will not be significant.

The cutoff works well if the plan generator starts with an initial join order that produces a plan with cost close to optimal. Finding a good initial join order is a difficult problem.

13.4.2.1 Overview of EXPLAIN PLAN

You can examine the execution plan chosen by the optimizer for a SQL statement by using the EXPLAIN PLAN statement. When the statement is issued, the optimizer chooses an execution plan and then inserts data describing the plan into a database table. Simply issue the EXPLAIN PLAN statement and then query the output table.

These are the basics of using the EXPLAIN PLAN statement:

• Use the SQL script UTLXPLAN.SQL to create a sample output table called PLAN_TABLE in your schema. See "The PLAN_TABLE Output Table".

• Include the EXPLAIN PLAN FOR clause prior to the SQL statement. See "Running EXPLAIN PLAN".

• After issuing the EXPLAIN PLAN statement, use one of the scripts or package provided by Oracle to display the most recent plan table output. See "Displaying PLAN_TABLE Output".

• The execution order in EXPLAIN PLAN output begins with the line that is the furthest indented to the right. The next step is the parent of that line. If two lines are indented equally, then the top line is normally executed first.

  Notes:

  • The EXPLAIN PLAN output tables in this chapter were displayed with the utlxpls.sql script.

  • The steps in the EXPLAIN PLAN output in this chapter may be different on your system. The optimizer may choose different execution plans, depending on database configurations.

Example 13-1 uses EXPLAIN PLAN to examine a SQL statement that selects the employee_id, job_title, salary, and department_name for the employees whose IDs are less than 103.

EXPLAIN PLAN FOR
SELECT e.employee_id, j.job_title, e.salary, d.department_name
    FROM employees e, jobs j, departments d
    WHERE  e.employee_id < 103
       AND e.job_id = j.job_id 
       AND e.department_id = d.department_id;

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
| Id  | Operation                     |  Name        | Rows  | Bytes | Cost (%CPU)|
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
|   0 | SELECT STATEMENT              |              |     3 |   189 |    10  (10)|
|   1 |  NESTED LOOPS                 |              |     3 |   189 |    10  (10)|
|   2 |   NESTED LOOPS                |              |     3 |   141 |     7  (15)|
|*  3 |    TABLE ACCESS FULL          | EMPLOYEES    |     3 |    60 |     4  (25)|
|   4 |    TABLE ACCESS BY INDEX ROWID| JOBS         |    19 |   513 |     2  (50)|
|*  5 |     INDEX UNIQUE SCAN         | JOB_ID_PK    |     1 |       |            |
|   6 |   TABLE ACCESS BY INDEX ROWID | DEPARTMENTS  |    27 |   432 |     2  (50)|
|*  7 |    INDEX UNIQUE SCAN          | DEPT_ID_PK   |     1 |       |            |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Predicate Information (identified by operation id):
---------------------------------------------------
   3 - filter("E"."EMPLOYEE_ID"<103)
   5 - access("E"."JOB_ID"="J"."JOB_ID")
   7 - access("E"."DEPARTMENT_ID"="D"."DEPARTMENT_ID")

13.4.2.2 Steps in the Execution Plan

Each row in the output table corresponds to a single step in the execution plan. Note that the step Ids with asterisks are listed in the Predicate Information section.

Each step of the execution plan returns a set of rows that either is used by the next step or, in the last step, is returned to the user or application issuing the SQL statement. A set of rows returned by a step is called a row set.

The numbering of the step Ids reflects the order in which they are displayed in response to the EXPLAIN PLAN statement. Each step of the execution plan either retrieves rows from the database or accepts rows from one or more row sources as input.

• The following steps in Example 13-2 physically retrieve data from an object in the database:

  • Step 3 reads all rows of the employees table.

  • Step 5 looks up each job_id in JOB_ID_PK index and finds the rowids of the associated rows in the jobs table.

  • Step 4 retrieves the rows with rowids that were returned by Step 5 from the jobs table.

  • Step 7 looks up each department_id in DEPT_ID_PK index and finds the rowids of the associated rows in the departments table.

  • Step 6 retrieves the rows with rowids that were returned by Step 7 from the departments table.

• The following steps in Example 13-2 operate on rows returned by the previous row source:

  • Step 2 performs the nested loop operation on job_id in the jobs and employees tables, accepting row sources from Steps 3 and 4, joining each row from Step 3 source to its corresponding row in Step 4, and returning the resulting rows to Step 2.

  • Step 1 performs the nested loop operation, accepting row sources from Step 2 and Step 6, joining each row from Step 2 source to its corresponding row in Step 6, and returning the resulting rows to Step 1.

    See Also:

    • "Understanding Access Paths for the Query Optimizer" for more information on access paths

    • "Understanding Joins" for more information on the methods by which Oracle joins row sources

13.5.1.1 Why a Full Table Scan Is Faster for Accessing Large Amounts of Data

Full table scans are cheaper than index range scans when accessing a large fraction of the blocks in a table. This is because full table scans can use larger I/O calls, and making fewer large I/O calls is cheaper than making many smaller calls.

13.5.1.2 When the Optimizer Uses Full Table Scans

The optimizer uses a full table scan in any of the following cases:

13.5.1.3 Full Table Scan Hints

Use the hint FULL(table alias) to instruct the optimizer to use a full table scan. For more information on the FULL hint, see "Hints for Access Paths".

You can use the CACHE and NOCACHE hints to indicate where the retrieved blocks are placed in the buffer cache. The CACHE hint instructs the optimizer to place the retrieved blocks at the most recently used end of the LRU list in the buffer cache when a full table scan is performed.

Small tables are automatically cached according to the criteria in Table 13-4.

Automatic caching of small tables is disabled for tables that are created or altered with the CACHE attribute.

13.5.1.4 Parallel Query Execution

When a full table scan is required, response time can be improved by using multiple parallel execution servers for scanning the table. Parallel queries are used generally in low-concurrency data warehousing environments, because of the potential resource usage.

13.5.2.1 When the Optimizer Uses Rowids

This is generally the second step after retrieving the rowid from an index. The table access might be required for any columns in the statement not present in the index.

Access by rowid does not need to follow every index scan. If the index contains all the columns needed for the statement, then table access by rowid might not occur.

13.5.3.1 Assessing I/O for Blocks, not Rows

Oracle does I/O by blocks. Therefore, the optimizer's decision to use full table scans is influenced by the percentage of blocks accessed, not rows. This is called the index clustering factor. If blocks contain single rows, then rows accessed and blocks accessed are the same.

However, most tables have multiple rows in each block. Consequently, the desired number of rows could be clustered together in a few blocks, or they could be spread out over a larger number of blocks.

Although the clustering factor is a property of the index, the clustering factor actually relates to the spread of similar indexed column values within data blocks in the table. A lower clustering factor indicates that the individual rows are concentrated within fewer blocks in the table. Conversely, a high clustering factor indicates that the individual rows are scattered more randomly across blocks in the table. Therefore, a high clustering factor means that it costs more to use a range scan to fetch rows by rowid, because more blocks in the table need to be visited to return the data. Example 13-3 shows how the clustering factor can affect cost.

• There is a table with 9 rows.

• There is a non-unique index on col1 for table.

• The c1 column currently stores the values A, B, and C.

• The table only has three Oracle blocks.

Case 1: The index clustering factor is low for the rows as they are arranged in the following diagram.

Block 1       Block 2        Block 3 
                 -------       -------        -------- 
                 A  A  A       B  B  B        C  C  C 

This is because the rows that have the same indexed column values for c1 are located within the same physical blocks in the table. The cost of using a range scan to return all of the rows that have the value A is low, because only one block in the table needs to be read.

Case 2: If the same rows in the table are rearranged so that the index values are scattered across the table blocks (rather than collocated), then the index clustering factor is higher.

Block 1       Block 2        Block 3 
                 -------       -------        --------
                 A  B  C       A  B  C        A  B  C

This is because all three blocks in the table must be read in order to retrieve all rows with the value A in col1.

13.5.3.2 Index Unique Scans

This scan returns, at most, a single rowid. Oracle performs a unique scan if a statement contains a UNIQUE or a PRIMARY KEY constraint that guarantees that only a single row is accessed.

In Example 13-2, "EXPLAIN PLAN Output", an index scan is performed on the jobs and departments tables, using the job_id_pk and dept_id_pk indexes respectively.

13.5.3.3 Index Range Scans

An index range scan is a common operation for accessing selective data. It can be bounded (bounded on both sides) or unbounded (on one or both sides). Data is returned in the ascending order of index columns. Multiple rows with identical values are sorted in ascending order by rowid.

If data must be sorted by order, then use the ORDER BY clause, and do not rely on an index. If an index can be used to satisfy an ORDER BY clause, then the optimizer uses this option and avoids a sort.

In Example 13-4, the order has been imported from a legacy system, and you are querying the order by the reference used in the legacy system. Assume this reference is the order_date.

SELECT order_status, order_id
  FROM orders
 WHERE order_date = :b1;

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
| Id  | Operation                   |  Name              | Rows  | Bytes | Cost (%CPU)|
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
|   0 | SELECT STATEMENT            |                    |     1 |    20 |     3  (34)|
|   1 |  TABLE ACCESS BY INDEX ROWID| ORDERS             |     1 |    20 |     3  (34)|
|*  2 |   INDEX RANGE SCAN          | ORD_ORDER_DATE_IX  |     1 |       |     2  (50)|
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Predicate Information (identified by operation id):
---------------------------------------------------
   2 - access("ORDERS"."ORDER_DATE"=:Z)

13.5.3.4 Index Range Scans Descending

An index range scan descending is identical to an index range scan, except that the data is returned in descending order. Indexes, by default, are stored in ascending order. Usually, this scan is used when ordering data in a descending order to return the most recent data first, or when seeking a value less than a specified value.

13.5.3.5 Index Skip Scans

Index skip scans improve index scans by nonprefix columns. Often, scanning index blocks is faster than scanning table data blocks.

Skip scanning lets a composite index be split logically into smaller subindexes. In skip scanning, the initial column of the composite index is not specified in the query. In other words, it is skipped.

The number of logical subindexes is determined by the number of distinct values in the initial column. Skip scanning is advantageous if there are few distinct values in the leading column of the composite index and many distinct values in the nonleading key of the index.

('F',98)
('F',100)
('F',102)
('F',104)
('M',101)
('M',103)
('M',105)

• The first subindex has the keys with the value F.

• The second subindex has the keys with the value M.

Figure 13-2 Index Skip Scan Illustration

Description of the illustration pfgrf197.gif

The column sex is skipped in the following query:

SELECT * 
   FROM employees 
WHERE employee_id = 101; 

A complete scan of the index is not performed, but the subindex with the value F is searched first, followed by a search of the subindex with the value M.

13.5.3.6 Full Scans

A full scan is available if a predicate references one of the columns in the index. The predicate does not need to be an index driver. A full scan is also available when there is no predicate, if both the following conditions are met:

• All of the columns in the table referenced in the query are included in the index.

• At least one of the index columns is not null.

A full scan can be used to eliminate a sort operation, because the data is ordered by the index key. It reads the blocks singly.

13.5.3.7 Fast Full Index Scans

Fast full index scans are an alternative to a full table scan when the index contains all the columns that are needed for the query, and at least one column in the index key has the NOT NULL constraint. A fast full scan accesses the data in the index itself, without accessing the table. It cannot be used to eliminate a sort operation, because the data is not ordered by the index key. It reads the entire index using multiblock reads, unlike a full index scan, and can be parallelized.

You can specify fast full index scans with the initialization parameter OPTIMIZER_FEATURES_ENABLE or the INDEX_FFS hint. Fast full index scans cannot be performed against bitmap indexes.

A fast full scan is faster than a normal full index scan in that it can use multiblock I/O and can be parallelized just like a table scan.

13.5.3.8 Index Joins

An index join is a hash join of several indexes that together contain all the table columns that are referenced in the query. If an index join is used, then no table access is needed, because all the relevant column values can be retrieved from the indexes. An index join cannot be used to eliminate a sort operation.

13.5.3.9 Bitmap Indexes

A bitmap join uses a bitmap for key values and a mapping function that converts each bit position to a rowid. Bitmaps can efficiently merge indexes that correspond to several conditions in a WHERE clause, using Boolean operations to resolve AND and OR conditions.

13.6.3.1 Nested Loop Example

This section discusses the outer and inner loops for one of the nested loops in the query in Example 13-1.

...
|   2 |   NESTED LOOPS                |              |     3 |   141 |     7  (15)|
|*  3 |    TABLE ACCESS FULL          | EMPLOYEES    |     3 |    60 |     4  (25)|
|   4 |    TABLE ACCESS BY INDEX ROWID| JOBS         |    19 |   513 |     2  (50)|
|*  5 |     INDEX UNIQUE SCAN         | JOB_ID_PK    |     1 |       |            |
...

In this example, the outer loop retrieves all the rows of the employees table. For every employee retrieved by the outer loop, the inner loop retrieves the associated row in the jobs table.

3 |    TABLE ACCESS FULL        | EMPLOYEES

SELECT e.employee_id, e.salary
  FROM employees e
 WHERE e.employee_id < 103

4 |    TABLE ACCESS BY INDEX ROWID| JOBS
5 |     INDEX UNIQUE SCAN         | JOB_ID_PK

SELECT j.job_title
 FROM jobs j
    WHERE e.job_id = j.job_id 

13.6.3.2 When the Optimizer Uses Nested Loop Joins

The optimizer uses nested loop joins when joining small number of rows, with a good driving condition between the two tables. You drive from the outer loop to the inner loop, so the order of tables in the execution plan is important.

The outer loop is the driving row source. It produces a set of rows for driving the join condition. The row source can be a table accessed using an index scan or a full table scan. Also, the rows can be produced from any other operation. For example, the output from a nested loop join can be used as a row source for another nested loop join.

The inner loop is iterated for every row returned from the outer loop, ideally by an index scan. If the access path for the inner loop is not dependent on the outer loop, then you can end up with a Cartesian product; for every iteration of the outer loop, the inner loop produces the same set of rows. Therefore, you should use other join methods when two independent row sources are joined together.

13.6.3.3 Nested Loop Join Hints

If the optimizer is choosing to use some other join method, you can use the USE_NL(table1 table2) hint, where table1 and table2 are the aliases of the tables being joined.

For some SQL examples, the data is small enough for the optimizer to prefer full table scans and use hash joins. This is the case for the SQL example shown in Example 13-7, "Hash Joins". However, you can add a USE_NL to instruct the optimizer to change the join method to nested loop. For more information on the USE_NL hint, see "Hints for Join Operations".

13.6.3.4 Nesting Nested Loops

The outer loop of a nested loop can be a nested loop itself. You can nest two or more outer loops together to join as many tables as needed. Each loop is a data access method, as follows:

SELECT STATEMENT
 NESTED LOOP 3
  NESTED LOOP 2          (OUTER LOOP 3.1)
   NESTED LOOP 1         (OUTER LOOP 2.1)
    OUTER LOOP 1.1     - #1
    INNER LOOP 1.2     - #2
   INNER LOOP 2.2      - #3
  INNER LOOP 3.2       - #4

13.6.4.1 When the Optimizer Uses Hash Joins

The optimizer uses a hash join to join two tables if they are joined using an equijoin and if either of the following conditions are true:

• A large amount of data needs to be joined.

• A large fraction of a small table needs to be joined.

In Example 13-7, the table orders is used to build the hash table, and order_items is the larger table, which is scanned later.

SELECT o.customer_id, l.unit_price * l.quantity
  FROM orders o ,order_items l
 WHERE l.order_id = o.order_id;

--------------------------------------------------------------------------
| Id  | Operation            |  Name        | Rows  | Bytes | Cost (%CPU)|
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
|   0 | SELECT STATEMENT     |              |   665 | 13300 |     8  (25)|
|*  1 |  HASH JOIN           |              |   665 | 13300 |     8  (25)|
|   2 |   TABLE ACCESS FULL  | ORDERS       |   105 |   840 |     4  (25)|
|   3 |   TABLE ACCESS FULL  | ORDER_ITEMS  |   665 |  7980 |     4  (25)|
--------------------------------------------------------------------------

Predicate Information (identified by operation id):
---------------------------------------------------
   1 - access("L"."ORDER_ID"="O"."ORDER_ID")

13.6.4.2 Hash Join Hints

Apply the USE_HASH hint to instruct the optimizer to use a hash join when joining two tables together. See "PGA Memory Management" for information on sizing of SQL work areas. For more information on the USE_HASH hint, see "Hints for Join Operations".

13.6.5.1 When the Optimizer Uses Sort Merge Joins

The optimizer can choose a sort merge join over a hash join for joining large amounts of data if any of the following conditions are true:

• The join condition between two tables is not an equi-join.

• Because of sorts already required by other operations, the optimizer finds it is cheaper to use a sort merge than a hash join.

13.6.5.2 Sort Merge Join Hints

To instruct the optimizer to use a sort merge join, apply the USE_MERGE hint. You might also need to give hints to force an access path.

There are situations where it is better to override the optimize with the USE_MERGE hint. For example, the optimizer can choose a full scan on a table and avoid a sort operation in a query. However, there is an increased cost because a large table is accessed through an index and single block reads, as opposed to faster access through a full table scan.

For more information on the USE_MERGE hint, see "Hints for Join Operations".

13.6.6.1 When the Optimizer Uses Cartesian Joins

The optimizer uses Cartesian joins when it is asked to join two tables with no join conditions. In some cases, a common filter condition between the two tables could be picked up by the optimizer as a possible join condition. In other cases, the optimizer may decide to generate a Cartesian product of two very small tables that are both joined to the same large table.

13.6.6.2 Cartesian Join Hints

Applying the ORDERED hint, instructs the optimizer to use a Cartesian join. By specifying a table before its join table is specified, the optimizer does a Cartesian join.

13.6.7.1 Nested Loop Outer Joins

This operation is used when an outer join is used between two tables. The outer join returns the outer (preserved) table rows, even when there are no corresponding rows in the inner (optional) table.

In a regular outer join, the optimizer chooses the order of tables (driving and driven) based on the cost. However, in a nested loop outer join, the order of tables is determined by the join condition. The outer table, with rows that are being preserved, is used to drive to the inner table.

The optimizer uses nested loop joins to process an outer join in the following circumstances:

• It is possible to drive from the outer table to inner table.

• Data volume is low enough to make the nested loop method efficient.

For an example of a nested loop outer join, you can add the USE_NL hint to Example 13-8 to instruct the optimizer to use a nested loop. For example:

SELECT /*+ USE_NL(c o) */ cust_last_name, sum(nvl2(o.customer_id,0,1)) "Count"

13.6.7.2 Hash Join Outer Joins

The optimizer uses hash joins for processing an outer join if the data volume is high enough to make the hash join method efficient or if it is not possible to drive from the outer table to inner table.

The order of tables is determined by the cost. The outer table, including preserved rows, may be used to build the hash table, or it may be used to probe one.

Example 13-8 shows a typical hash join outer join query. In this example, all the customers with credit limits greater than 1000 are queried. An outer join is needed so that you do not miss the customers who do not have any orders.

SELECT cust_last_name, sum(nvl2(o.customer_id,0,1)) "Count"
  FROM customers c, orders o
 WHERE c.credit_limit > 1000
   AND c.customer_id = o.customer_id(+)
 GROUP BY cust_last_name;

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
| Id  | Operation            |  Name           | Rows  | Bytes | Cost (%CPU)|
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
|   0 | SELECT STATEMENT     |                 |   168 |  3192 |     6  (17)|
|   1 |  HASH GROUP BY       |                 |   168 |  3192 |     6  (17)|
|*  2 |   NESTED LOOPS OUTER |                 |   260 |  4940 |     5  (0) |
|*  3 |    TABLE ACCESS FULL | CUSTOMERS       |   260 |  3900 |     5  (0) |
|*  4 |    INDEX RANGE SCAN  | ORD_CUSTOMER_IX |   105 |   420 |     0  (0) |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Predicate Information (identified by operation id):
---------------------------------------------------

   3 - filter("C"."CREDIT_LIMIT">1000)
   4 - access("C"."CUSTOMER_ID"="0"."CUSTOMER_ID"(+))
       filter("O"."CUSTOMER_ID"(+)>0)

customers.customer_id = orders.customer_id(+)

• The outer table is customers.

• The inner table is orders.

• The join preserves the customers rows, including those rows without a corresponding row in orders.

You could use a NOT EXISTS subquery to return the rows. However, because you are querying all the rows in the table, the hash join performs better (unless the NOT EXISTS subquery is not nested).

In Example 13-9, the outer join is to a multitable view. The optimizer cannot drive into the view like in a normal join or push the predicates, so it builds the entire row set of the view.

SELECT c.cust_last_name, sum(revenue)
  FROM customers c, v_orders o
 WHERE c.credit_limit > 2000
   AND o.customer_id(+) = c.customer_id
 GROUP BY c.cust_last_name;

----------------------------------------------------------------------------
| Id  | Operation              |  Name        | Rows  | Bytes | Cost (%CPU)|
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
|   0 | SELECT STATEMENT       |              |   144 |  4608 |    16  (32)|
|   1 |  HASH GROUP BY         |              |   144 |  4608 |    16  (32)|
|*  2 |   HASH JOIN OUTER      |              |   663 | 21216 |    15  (27)|
|*  3 |    TABLE ACCESS FULL   | CUSTOMERS    |   195 |  2925 |     6  (17)|
|   4 |    VIEW                | V_ORDERS     |   665 | 11305 |            |
|   5 |     HASH GROUP BY      |              |   665 | 15960 |     9  (34)|
|*  6 |      HASH JOIN         |              |   665 | 15960 |     8  (25)|
|*  7 |       TABLE ACCESS FULL| ORDERS       |   105 |   840 |     4  (25)|
|   8 |       TABLE ACCESS FULL| ORDER_ITEMS  |   665 | 10640 |     4  (25)|
----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Predicate Information (identified by operation id):
---------------------------------------------------
   2 - access("O"."CUSTOMER_ID"(+)="C"."CUSTOMER_ID")
   3 - filter("C"."CREDIT_LIMIT">2000)
   6 - access("O"."ORDER_ID"="L"."ORDER_ID")
   7 - filter("O"."CUSTOMER_ID">0)

CREATE OR REPLACE view v_orders AS
SELECT l.product_id, SUM(l.quantity*unit_price) revenue, 
       o.order_id, o.customer_id
  FROM orders o, order_items l
 WHERE o.order_id = l.order_id
 GROUP BY l.product_id, o.order_id, o.customer_id;

13.6.7.3 Sort Merge Outer Joins

When an outer join cannot drive from the outer (preserved) table to the inner (optional) table, it cannot use a hash join or nested loop joins. Then it uses the sort merge outer join for performing the join operation.

The optimizer uses sort merge for an outer join:

• If a nested loop join is inefficient. A nested loop join can be inefficient because of data volumes.

• The optimizer finds it is cheaper to use a sort merge over a hash join because of sorts already required by other operations.

13.6.7.4 Full Outer Joins

A full outer join acts like a combination of the left and right outer joins. In addition to the inner join, rows from both tables that have not been returned in the result of the inner join are preserved and extended with nulls. In other words, full outer joins let you join tables together, yet still show rows that do not have corresponding rows in the joined tables.

The query in Example 13-10 retrieves all departments and all employees in each department, but also includes:

• Any employees without departments

• Any departments without employees

SELECT d.department_id, e.employee_id
  FROM employees e
  FULL OUTER JOIN departments d
    ON e.department_id = d.department_id
 ORDER BY d.department_id;

DEPARTMENT_ID EMPLOYEE_ID
------------- -----------
           10         200
           20         201
           20         202
           30         114
           30         115
           30         116
...
          270
          280
                      178
                      207

125 rows selected.